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➢ Mining of old waste storage areas to be used as fertilizer in agricultural lands,

➢ Application of animal manure such as poultry/pig manure and cow manure;
➢ Direct application of human feces or biological solids to soil,

➢ Organized composting of solid waste or composting solid waste together with animal
manure or human excreta.

Whichever method is used, the microbial decomposition process releases beneficial nutrients
in organic waste for soil improvement and plant growth. Composting is the process of

decomposing or breaking down organic waste materials (by microorganisms such as bacteria,

single-celled organisms, fungi, and invertebrates) into a valuable resource called compost.
Composting is done in urban areas at different scales (large, medium, small) by various people

(municipalities, NGOs, communities, individuals) and for various purposes (gardening,
landscaping, farming). In the 1970s, large-scale centralized fertilization came to the fore,

especially in the world. However, this has proven unsuccessful. Collecting and transporting

organic waste to centrally managed sites is expensive, time consuming and energy intensive;
these processes are also dependent on fossil fuel inputs, which are often heavily subsidized to

ensure fuel inputs are maintained, thus increasing economic inefficiency at the macro level.
Where funding comes from donor agencies, the conditions that accompany such funding often

act as a barrier to good practice. In developing countries, technological know-how on financial

analysis, engineering design of compost facilities and transportation schedule modeling is very
limited. In addition, technological transfers of composting processes and equipment from

developed countries were often made in the past without regard to local constraints, and the
transferred technologies were often not applicable in the receiving country. Additionally,

comprehensively planned composting stations based on supply-demand analysis are not
common. In fact, waste management authorities in many developing countries do not have the

"luxury" of planning for recycling; Instead, they focus their limited resources on priority needs

such as “waste collection” and “safe disposal,” which consume large portions of municipal
budgets in low-income countries because their cost recovery is low. The irony is that waste

disposal costs can be reduced through composting if planned well. But what seems like a logical
win-win situation for city officials and farmers is rarely the reality in the developing world.

This is due to various factors such as lack of affordable equipment, lack of technical personnel,
frequent mechanical breakdowns and financial constraints. In the 1990s, small and medium-

sized, decentralized composting-based initiatives developed. However, the transition from

centralized to decentralized composting approaches is often further complicated by the lack of
cross-sectoral planning (waste/planning/agriculture) in waste management. The failure of

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